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The essential metaphysical ideas of Jainism are nine cardinal
principles. The universe is divided into that which is alive and conscious
(jiva) and matter which is not (ajiva). Jivas (souls)
are either caught by karma (action) in the world of reincarnation (samsara)
or liberated (mukta) and perfected (siddha). Though their
number is infinite, jivas are individuals and each potentially
infinite in awareness, power, and bliss. Matter (ajiva) is made up
of eternal atoms in time and space which can be moved and stopped.
The other seven principles explain the workings of karma and the soul's
liberation from it. The soul (jiva) is attracted to sense-objects
by the principle of ashrava which leads to the bondage (bandha)
of the soul by karma, which covers up and limits the soul's natural
abilities to know and perceive in its blissful state, resulting in
delusions and a succession of births. The next two principles are virtue (punya)
and vice (papa) by which all karma either works beneficially toward
liberation or negatively toward bondage.
The seventh principle
samvara is how the soul prevents ashrava
(the influx of karma) by watchfulness and self-discipline of mind, speech,
and body. This eventually leads to nirjara,the elimination of
karma. Finally moksha or liberation is attained. In one's last life
at death, nirvana (literally "being extinguished") describes the
end of worldly existence for the soul, which then rises to the highest
heaven.
Although Jainas believe that souls may have some lives as gods and
goddesses in heavenly worlds or suffer in hell and become demon-like,
there is no total God lifting up souls or punishing them in hell. Rather
each individual jiva is responsible for itself and completely
determines its own destiny, although these jivas do have the divine
attributes of infinite knowledge, power, and bliss. This doctrine of
individual responsibility makes Jainism a primarily ethical religion, as
does the severity of their five vows of nonviolence, truthfulness,
non-stealing, chastity, and non-possession.
Ahimsa (nonviolence) means not injuring any living thing in any
way, and the Jainas took it very seriously. Injuring an animal or causing
anyone to do so was considered a sin. This meant walking carefully so as
not to injure even the tiniest creatures. The mind had to be watched to
prevent thoughts and intentions that might lead to quarrels, faults, pain,
or any kind of injury. Similarly one's speech had to be carefully
monitored. The Jaina must be careful in laying down their begging utensils
so as not to hurt a living being, and food and water must be carefully
inspected to make sure no living things are hurt or displaced.
Truth means one must not speak any lies nor cause any lies to
be spoken nor consent to any lies being spoken. Thus the Nirgrantha (Jaina)
speaks only after deliberation and renounces anger, greed, fear, and mirth
so that no falsehoods will be uttered. This vow combined with non- hurting
(ahimsa)
meant that speech must be pleasant and not painful or insulting in any
way.
Non-stealing means that nothing must be taken that is not freely given.
Thus the Nirgrantha begs only after deliberation and according to strict
rules, consumes food and drink only after permission is granted, occupies
only limited ground for short periods of time, continually renewing the
grant to be there.
Chastity means renunciation of all sensual pleasures. To achieve this
discipline monks do not discuss women nor contemplate their lovely forms
nor recall previously enjoyed pleasures nor occupy a bed or couch used by
women, animals, or eunuchs.
Finally all attachments must be renounced, even to the delight in
agreeable sounds or being disturbed by disagreeable ones. Similarly with
all the five senses, one may not be able to avoid all experiences, but one
is not to be attached to the agreeable ones, for those who acquiesce and
indulge in worldly pleasures are born again and again. By these
disciplines the wise avoid wrath, pride, deceit, greed, love, hate,
delusion, conception, birth, death, hell, animal existence, and pain.
In order to find liberation four things must be attained: human birth,
instruction in the teachings, belief in them, and energy in self-control.
This meant freeing oneself from family bonds, giving up acts and
attachments, and living self-controlled towards the eternal. Collecting
alms one may be insulted and despised, but the wise with undisturbed mind
sustains their insults and blows, like an elephant in battle with arrows,
and is not shaken any more than a rock is by the wind. The sage lives
detached from pleasure and pain, not hurting and not killing; bearing all,
one's luster increases like a burning flame as one conquers desires and
meditates on the supremacy of virtue, though suffering pain.
The great vows, which are a place of peace, the great teachers, and the
producers of detachment have been proclaimed by the infinite victor (Jina),
the knowing one, as light illuminating the three worlds (earth, heaven,
and hell). The unfettered one living among the bound should be a beggar,
unattached to women, and speak with reverence, not desiring this or the
next world. The dirt of former sins committed by a liberated mendicant
walking in wisdom who is constant and bears pain vanishes like the tarnish
from silver in the fire. Free from desire with conquered sensuality, one
is freed from the bed of pain like a snake casts off its skin. Renouncing
the world the sage is called "the maker of the end," for that
one has quit the path of births.
The soul cannot be apprehended by the senses, because it possesses no
corporeal form and thus is eternal. The fetters on the soul are caused by
bad qualities, which cause worldly existence. The golden rule is a part of
the Jaina teachings and is extended to all living beings.
Once a disciple of
Parshva, the 23rd Tirthankara, asked Gautama why
Mahavira taught five vows instead of four. Earlier chastity was practiced
as part of non-possession or detachment, but Keshi also explained that the
first saints were simple and slow of understanding; they could practice
the teachings better than they could understand them. The last saints were
prevaricating and slow of understanding; though they might understand
them, they had difficulty practicing them. Those in between were simple
and wise; they easily understood and practiced them.
The three gems of Jainism are right attitude, right knowledge, and
right conduct. The right attitude takes an unbiased approach, believes in
the nine essential principles, and uses discriminating perception. Right
knowledge proceeds through the five stages of sense perception, study,
intuition, clairvoyance, and omniscience (kevala). Right conduct or
character comes from self-discipline, renunciation, and pure conduct in
practicing the five major vows. The rationale for self-discipline is
explained in the Uttaradhyayana.
The rules for walking, sitting, begging for food, and evacuating one's
bowels were very strict. In order to avoid causing anyone else even to do
injury in preparing food, for example, monks must not accept food that is
especially prepared for them. The monk must not encourage a lay person to
give alms by playing with their children, giving information, praising
charity, declaring one's family, expatiating on one's misery, curing the
sick, threatening, showing one's learning, and so on.
Mahavira's theory of knowledge
(syadvada) is relativistic and
tentative to allow for the relativity of this world. Anything may be or
not be or be indescribable or any combination of these to allow for
various perspectives.
Mahavira taught 73 methods for exertion in goodness by which many
creatures, who believed in and accepted them, studied, learned,
understood, and practiced them, and acted according to them, obtained
perfection, enlightenment, deliverance, beatitude, and an end to all
misery. Briefly they are: longing for liberation, disregard of worldly
objects, faith in the law, obedience to other monks and the guru,
confession of sins, repenting to oneself and the guru, moral purity,
adoration of the 24 Jinas, expiation, meditating without moving the body,
self-denial, praises and hymns, time discipline, penance, asking
forgiveness, study, recitation, questioning, repetition, pondering,
discourse, sacred knowledge, concentration, control, austerity, cutting
off karma, renouncing pleasure, mental independence, using unfrequented
lodgings, turning from the world, not collecting alms in only one
district, renouncing useful articles, renouncing food, overcoming desires,
renouncing activity and the body and company, final renunciation,
conforming to the standard, doing service, fulfilling all virtues, freedom
from passion, patience, freedom from greed, simplicity, humility,
sincerity of mind and religious practice and action, watchfulness of mind
and speech and body, discipline of mind and speech and body, possession of
knowledge and faith and conduct, subduing the five senses, conquering
anger and pride and deceit and greed and wrong belief, stability, and
freedom from karma.
In disciplining the mind, speech, and body, Jainas often stood in one
position for a long time. Meditation might focus on such thoughts as the
impermanence of worldly things, human helplessness, transitory quality of
human relations, aloneness, separateness of the conscious soul from the
unconscious body, the impurity of the body, how attachment binds the soul
by karma, how good thoughts may release the soul, how karma may be
eliminated, the difficulty of attaining perfection, and how the teachings
may save one.
Mahavira's travels spread Jainism to various parts of northern India,
and later migrations of monks enabled the religion to take hold in most of
India. A poetic work on the rules of behavior for monks by Arya
Sayyambhava written about 400 BC expresses concern that an act might
"undermine the prestige of the Jaina order." This lapse of
humility, one of the main virtues emphasized in this work, does indicate
that Jainism was very likely respected by many. The examples of these
extremely conscientious ascetics surely must have had their affect on
people wherever they went; and since they were homeless, they traveled
constantly.
Though they seem to have argued over doctrinal differences, no major
schism occurred in the religion until the first century CE, and that was
only over whether monks ought to go naked or whether they could wear a
garment.
In evaluating the ethics of Jainism we must keep in mind that the
ascetic monks and nuns were probably far outnumbered by the householders,
who practiced a minor version of the five vows. The primary goal of those
who have renounced the world is spiritual liberation (moksha) from
the wheel of reincarnation (samsara). Thus their lives were
essentially motivated by this intention of removing their souls from the
world. Though they lived lightly on the earth, using as little of its
resources as possible, they were still dependent on lay people for their
meager survival needs. The complete focus on this other-worldly goal does
seem to prevent them from contributing much to society except their
example of self-discipline and possibly some teaching.
Yet the lay people who practiced Jainism while earning a living and
providing for their families were contributing to society while doing
their best not to harm others or any living creature. Thus they were
vegetarians and, if true to the teachings, lived profoundly ethical lives.
Although they provided examples of peace, Jainas often supported the wars
that were common in ancient India. Their individual ethic somehow was not
able to expand into a larger social ethic to convert society as a whole to
the nonviolence they practiced as individuals.
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